Category: In Process

  • Abstraction

    What is Abstraction?

    (from the Latin abs, meaning away from and trahere, meaning to draw)
    is the process of taking away or removing characteristics from something in order to reduce it to a set of essential characteristics. (http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/abstraction)

    Abstract Art

    wikipedia

    Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world.

    Abstraction exists along a continuum.

    • All art is in some degree abstraction in the sense that even figurative art  is selective in what it represents.
    • Partial abstraction through obvious alterations of eg colour or form.
    • Total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable.

    History

    Much of the art of earlier cultures – signs and marks on pottery, textiles, and inscriptions and paintings on rock – were simple, geometric and linear forms which might have had a symbolic or decorative purpose.

    In Western Art abstraction started to develop in 19th Century. Three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism.

    Romanticism

    James McNeill Whistler  in his painting Nocturne in Black and Gold: The falling Rocket, (1872), placed greater emphasis on visual sensation than the depiction of objects.

    John Constable, J M W Turner, Camille Corot and from them to the

    Impressionists

    Paul Cézanne had begun as an Impressionist but his aim – to make a logical construction of reality based on a view from a single point, with modulated colour in flat areas – became the basis of a new visual art, later to be developed into Cubism by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso.

    Expressionist painters

    Expressionists explored the bold use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations, and intense color and produced emotionally charged paintings that were reactions to and perceptions of contemporary experience; and reactions to Impressionism and other more conservative directions of late 19th-century painting. The Expressionists drastically changed the emphasis on subject matter in favor of the portrayal of psychological states of being.

    Edvard Munch

    James Ensor

    Additionally in the late 19th century in Eastern Europe mysticism and early modernist religious philosophy as expressed by theosophist Mme. Blavatsky had a profound impact on pioneer geometric artists like Wassily Kandinsky, and Hilma af Klint. The mystical teaching of Georges Gurdjieff and P.D. Ouspensky also had an important influence on the early formations of the geometric abstract styles of Piet Mondrian and his colleagues in the early 20th century.

    20th century

    Post Impressionism as practiced by Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cézanne had an enormous impact on 20th-century art and led to the advent of 20th-century abstraction. The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art.

    Fauvism: At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with “wild”, multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. With his expressive use of color and his free and imaginative drawing Henri Matisse comes very close to pure abstraction in French Window at Collioure, (1914), View of Notre-Dame, (1914), and The Yellow Curtain from 1915. The raw language of color as developed by the Fauves directly influenced another pioneer of abstraction Wassily Kandinsky (see illustration).

    Cubism ultimately depends upon subject matter, it became, along with Fauvism, the art movement that directly opened the door to abstraction in the 20th century. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne’s idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. With the painting Les Demoiselles d’Avignon 1907, Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own new Cubist inventions. Analytic cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter. The collage artists like Kurt Schwitters and Man Ray and others taking the clue from Cubism were instrumental to the development of the movement called Dada.

    The Italian poet Marinetti published ‘The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism’ in 1909, which inspired artists such as Carlo Carra in, Painting of Sounds, Noises and Smells and Umberto Boccioni Train in Motion, 1911, to a further stage of abstraction and profoundly influenced art movements throughout Europe.[10]

    Orphism During the 1912 Salon de la Section d’Or the poet Guillaume Apollinaire named the work of several artists including Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Orphism.[11] He defined it as, the art of painting new structures out of elements that have not been borrowed from the visual sphere, but had been created entirely by the artist…it is a pure art.[12]

    Since the turn of the century cultural connections between artists of the major European and American cities had become extremely active as they strove to create an art form equal to the high aspirations of modernism. Ideas were able to cross-fertilize by means of artists books, exhibitions and manifestos so that many sources were open to experimentation and discussion, and formed a basis for a diversity of modes of abstraction. The following extract from,’The World Backwards’, gives some impression of the inter-connectedness of culture at the time: ‘David Burliuk’s knowledge of modern art movements must have been extremely up-to-date, for the second Knave of Diamonds exhibition, held in January 1912 (in Moscow) included not only paintings sent from Munich, but some members of the German Die Brücke group, while from Paris came work by Robert Delaunay, Henri Matisse and Fernand Léger, as well as Picasso. During the Spring David Burliuk gave two lectures on cubism and planned a polemical publication, which the Knave of Diamonds was to finance. He went abroad in May and came back determined to rival the almanac Der Blaue Reiter which had emerged from the printers while he was in Germany’.

    From 1909 to 1913 many experimental works in the search for this ‘pure art’ had been created: Francis Picabia painted Caoutchouc, 1909,[13] The Spring, 1912,[14] Dances at the Spring[15] and The Procession, Seville, 1912;[16] Wassily Kandinsky painted Untitled (First Abstract Watercolor), 1910,[17] Improvisation 21A, the Impression series, and Picture with a Circle (1911);[18] František Kupka had painted the Orphist works, Discs of Newton (Study for Fugue in Two Colors), 1912[19] and Amorpha, Fugue en deux couleurs (Fugue in Two Colors), 1912; Robert Delaunay painted a series entitled Simultaneous Windows and Formes Circulaires, Soleil n°2 (1912–13);[20] Léopold Survage created Colored Rhythm (Study for the film), 1913;[21] Piet Mondrian, painted Tableau No. 1 and Composition No. 11, 1913.[22]
    Wassily Kandinsky, On White 2, 1923
    And the search continued: The Rayist (Luchizm) drawings of Natalia Goncharova and Mikhail Larionov, used lines like rays of light to make a construction. Kasimir Malevich completed his first entirely abstract work, the Suprematist, ‘Black Square’, in 1915. Another of the Suprematist group’ Liubov Popova, created the Architectonic Constructions and Spatial Force Constructions between 1916 and 1921. Piet Mondrian was evolving his abstract language, of horizontal and vertical lines with rectangles of colour, between 1915 and 1919, Neo-Plasticism was the aesthetic which Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg and other in the group De Stijl intended to reshape the environment of the future.

    Music
    As visual art becomes more abstract, it develops some characteristics of music: an art form which uses the abstract elements of sound and divisions of time. Wassily Kandinsky, himself a musician, was inspired by the possibility of marks and associative color resounding in the soul. The idea had been put forward by Charles Baudelaire, that all our senses respond to various stimuli but the senses are connected at a deeper aesthetic level.

    Closely related to this, is the idea that art has The spiritual dimension and can transcend ‘every-day’ experience, reaching a spiritual plane. The Theosophical Society popularised the ancient wisdom of the sacred books of India and China in the early years of the century. It was in this context that Piet Mondrian, Wassily Kandinsky, Hilma af Klint and other artists working towards an ‘objectless state’ became interested in the occult as a way of creating an ‘inner’ object. The universal and timeless shapes found in geometry: the circle, square and triangle become the spatial elements in abstract art; they are, like color, fundamental systems underlying visible reality.

    Russian avant-garde

    Many of the abstract artists in Russia became Constructivists believing that art was no longer something remote, but life itself. The artist must become a technician, learning to use the tools and materials of modern production. Art into life! was Vladimir Tatlin’s slogan, and that of all the future Constructivists. Varvara Stepanova and Alexandre Exter and others abandoned easel painting and diverted their energies to theatre design and graphic works. On the other side stood Kazimir Malevich, Anton Pevsner and Naum Gabo. They argued that art was essentially a spiritual activity; to create the individual’s place in the world, not to organise life in a practical, materialistic sense. Many of those who were hostile to the materialist production idea of art left Russia. Anton Pevsner went to France, Gabo went first to Berlin, then to England and finally to America. Kandinsky studied in Moscow then left for the Bauhaus. By the mid-1920s the revolutionary period (1917 to 1921) when artists had been free to experiment was over; and by the 1930s only socialist realism was allowed.[23]

    The Bauhaus
    The Bauhaus at Weimar, Germany was founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius. The philosophy underlying the teaching program was unity of all the visual and plastic arts from architecture and painting to weaving and stained glass. This philosophy had grown from the ideas of the Arts and Crafts movement in England and the Deutscher Werkbund. Among the teachers were Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Johannes Itten, Josef Albers, Anni Albers, Theo van Doesburg and László Moholy-Nagy.

    In 1925 the school was moved to Dessau and, as the Nazi party gained control in 1932, The Bauhaus was closed. In 1937 an exhibition of degenerate art, ‘Entartete Kunst’ contained all types of avant-garde art disapproved of by the Nazi party. Then the exodus began: not just from the Bauhaus but from Europe in general; to Paris, London and America. Paul Klee went to Switzerland but many of the artists at the Bauhaus went to America.

    Abstraction in Paris and London

    During the 1930s Paris became the host to artists from Russia, Germany, Holland and other European countries affected by the rise of totalitarianism.

    Sophie Tauber and Jean Arp collaborated on paintings and sculpture using organic/geometric forms.

    The Polish Katarzyna Kobro applied mathematically based ideas to sculpture. The many types of abstraction now in close proximity led to attempts by artists to analyse the various conceptual and aesthetic groupings.

    An exhibition by forty-six members of the Cercle et Carré group organised by Michel Seuphor contained work by the Neo-Plasticists as well as abstractionists as varied as Kandinsky, Anton Pevsner and Kurt Schwitters. Criticised by Theo van Doesburg to be too indefinite a collection he published the journal Art Concret setting out a manifesto defining an abstract art in which the line, color and surface only, are the concrete reality.

    Abstraction-Création founded in 1931 as a more open group, provided a point of reference for abstract artists, as the political situation worsened in 1935, and artists again regrouped, many in London.

    1935 The first exhibition of British abstract art was held in England in 1935. The following year the more international Abstract and Concrete exhibition was organised by Nicolete Gray including work by Piet Mondrian, Joan Miró, Barbara Hepworth and Ben Nicholson. Hepworth, Nicholson and Gabo moved to the St. Ives group in Cornwall to continue their ‘constructivist’ work.

    America: mid-century
    Main articles: Modernism, Late modernism, American Modernism and Surrealism

    During the Nazi rise to power in the 1930s many artists fled Europe to the United States. By the early 1940s the main movements in modern art, expressionism, cubism, abstraction, surrealism, and dada were represented in New York: Marcel Duchamp, Fernand Léger, Piet Mondrian, Jacques Lipchitz, André Masson, Max Ernst, André Breton, were just a few of the exiled Europeans who arrived in New York.

    The rich cultural influences brought by the European artists were distilled and built upon by local New York painters. The climate of freedom in New York allowed all of these influences to flourish. The art galleries that primarily had focused on European art began to notice the local art community and the work of younger American artists who had begun to mature. Certain of these artists became distinctly abstract in their mature work.

    During this period Piet Mondrian’s painting Composition No. 10, 1939-1942, characterized by primary colors, white ground and black grid lines clearly defined his radical but classical approach to the rectangle and abstract art in general.

    Some artists of the period defied categorization, such as Georgia O’Keeffe who, while a modernist abstractionist, was a pure maverick in that she painted highly abstract forms while not joining any specific group of the period.

    Eventually American artists who were working in a great diversity of styles began to coalesce into cohesive stylistic groups. The best known group of American artists became known as the Abstract expressionists and the New York School.

    Mark Rothko, born in Russia, began with strongly surrealist imagery which later dissolved into his powerful color compositions of the early 1950s. The expressionistic gesture and the act of painting itself, became of primary importance to Jackson Pollock and Franz Kline. While during the 1940s Arshile Gorky’s and Willem de Kooning’s figurative work evolved into abstraction by the end of the decade.

    Both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. Among the very numerous art movements that embody partial abstraction would be for instance fauvism in which color is conspicuously and deliberately altered vis-a-vis reality, and cubism, which blatantly alters the forms of the real life entities depicted.[3][4]

    st-Impressionists they were instrumental to the advent of abstraction in the 20th century.

    Abstraction in the 21st century

    Main articles: Abstract expressionism, Color field, Lyrical abstraction, Post-painterly abstraction, Sculpture and Minimal art

    A commonly held idea is that pluralism characterizes art at the beginning of the 21st century. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is an anything goes attitude that prevails; an “everything going on”, and consequently “nothing going on” syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic superhighway filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit.

    Digital art, computer art, internet art, hard-edge painting, geometric abstraction, appropriation, hyperrealism, photorealism, expressionism, minimalism, lyrical abstraction, pop art, op art, abstract expressionism, color field painting, monochrome painting, neo-expressionism, collage, decollage, intermedia, assemblage, digital painting, postmodern art, neo-Dada painting, shaped canvas painting, environmental mural painting, graffiti, figure painting, landscape painting, portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions at the beginning of the 21st century.

    Into the 21st century abstraction remains very much in view, its main themes: the transcendental, the contemplative and the timeless are exempified by Barnett Newman, John McLaughlin, and Agnes Martin as well as younger living artists. Art as Object as seen in the Minimalist sculpture of Donald Judd and the paintings of Frank Stella are still seen today in newer permutations. The poetic, Lyrical Abstraction and the sensuous use of color seen in the work of painters as diverse as Robert Motherwell, Patrick Heron, Kenneth Noland, Sam Francis, Cy Twombly, Richard Diebenkorn, Helen Frankenthaler, Joan Mitchell, among others.

    There was a resurgence after the war and into the 1950s of the figurative, as neo-Dada, fluxus, happening, conceptual art, neo-expressionism, installation art, performance art, video art and pop art have come to signify the age of consumerism. The distinction between abstract and figurative art has, over the last twenty years, become less defined leaving a wider range of ideas for all artists.

    Causation

    One socio-historical explanation that has been offered for the growing prevalence of the abstract in modern art – an explanation linked to the name of Theodor W. Adorno – is that such abstraction is a response to, and a reflection of, the growing abstraction of social relations in industrial society.[31]

    Frederic Jameson similarly sees modernist abstraction as a function of the abstract power of money, equating all things equally as exchange-values.[32] The social content of abstract art is then precisely the abstract nature of social existence – legal formalities, bureaucratic impersonalisation, information/power – in the world of late modernity.[33]

    Post-Jungians by contrast would see the quantum theories with their disintegration of conventional ideas of form and matter as underlying the divorce of the concrete and the abstract in modern art.[34]

  • Feminist Design

    Feminist Design

    NOTE: Post for significant development 2025

    Feminist art and design

    • What were the social and political conditions that made these artists communicate in the ways they did?
    • How is this demonstrated in their work?
    • How did these artists establish their own artistic
      identity?

    “I have had to go to men as sources in my painting because the past has left us so small an inheritance of woman’s painting that had widened life….Before I put a brush to canvas I question, “Is this mine? Is it all intrinsically of myself? Is it influenced by some idea or some photograph of an idea which I have acquired from some man?”

    Georgia O’Keefe
    http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/modern/Georgia-OKeeffe.html

    For an interview with Georgia O’Keefe visit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BYwKRVJaNEA

    What is feminism?

    Some people have found it helpful to think about the history of the feminist movement in terms of first, second and third waves. Broadly speaking, these are:

    • First wave – from the formation of the National Women’s Society for Women’s Suffrage in 1867 to full female enfranchisement in the UK in 1928.
    • Second wave – from the feminist movements associated with the American civil rights movement of the early 1960s to equality legislation in the UK in the 1970s.
    • Third wave – from the 1980s to the present day, more about social and political change than legislative change.

    http://www.ehow.com/facts_4910333_history-feminist-art-movement.html

    For further research

    https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/f/feminist-art

    https://www.vermeulen-design.com/blog/feminism-graphic-design

    https://www.antalis.co.uk/home/what-we-do/print/news-events/latest-news/2022/03/design-for-good-force-feminism.html

    https://eyeondesign.aiga.org/how-feminist-movements-co-opt-graphic-design-to-express-themselves

    https://futuress.org/stories/canon-misbound

    https://saraoliveirablender.wordpress.com/2016/11/25/primary-research-feminism-in-graphic-design/

    Hannah Höch (1889–1978)

    Tamara de Lempicka (1898–1980)

    Frida Kahlo (1907–54).

    Sketchdesk 2024: The undeniable impact of women in design

    These 15 female graphic designers didn’t just break barriers. They reshaped the landscape of graphic design with their lifelong commitments to creativity, innovation, and vision. Ivy Croteau March 7, 2024

    Paula Scher

    Paula Scher is a trailblazer in the world of graphic design, known for her bold and eclectic style. As a partner at Pentagram, she worked on iconic projects like the rebranding of Citibank and Microsoft Windows. As a designer, Scher’s innovative approach to typography and branding earned her numerous accolades, solidifying her place as one of the most influential female graphic designers of our time.

    Carolyn Davidson

    Carolyn Davidson is best known for her creation of the iconic Nike “Swoosh” logo. Her minimalist yet impactful design became synonymous with the global sportswear brand, showcasing her innate ability to capture the essence of a company through visual identity.

    Jane Davis Doggett

    Jane Davis Doggett made history as the first woman to design signage for a major airport – the iconic Miami International Airport. Her innovative use of color and typography transformed airport way-finding systems, setting a new standard for environmental graphic design.

    Jessica Walsh

    Jessica Walsh is a design powerhouse, known for her vibrant and experimental approach to graphic design. Co-founder of the creative agency Sagmeister & Walsh, she worked with major brands such as Levi’s and The New York Times. As a designer, Walsh’s bold and imaginative designs continue to push the boundaries of visual communication.

    Susan Kare

    Susan Kare is a pioneer in the field of digital iconography. In the height of her career, she designed many of the original icons for the Apple Macintosh computer. Her pixel art designs, including the iconic “Happy Mac” and “Command Key,” are ingrained in pop culture, cementing her influence on user interface design.

    Jessica Hische

    Jessica Hische is a lettering artist and typographer renowned for her intricate and elegant designs. Her work spans branding, book covers, and editorial design, with clients including Wes Anderson and Penguin Books. As a designer, Hische’s dedication to craftsmanship and attention to detail earned her widespread acclaim in the design community.

    Leta Sobierajski

    Leta Sobierajski is a multidisciplinary designer known for her bold and unconventional approach to visual communication. Her playful use of color and texture challenges traditional design conventions, resulting in dynamic and engaging work across print and digital platforms.

    Louise Fili

    Louise Fili is a master of typographic design, celebrated for her exquisite craftsmanship and vintage-inspired aesthetics. With a career spanning over four decades, she created iconic branding and packaging designs for clients like Tiffany & Co. and the New York Public Library.

    Marian Bantjes

    Marian Bantjes is celebrated for her intricate and ornamental typographic designs that blur the line between illustration and lettering. Characterized by its meticulous attention to detail and whimsical aesthetic, her work garners admiration from designers worldwide.

    Bea Feitler

    Bea Feitler was a pioneering art director and graphic designer whose work revolutionized the world of editorial design. As art director for publications such as Harper’s Bazaar and Rolling Stone, she brought a bold and innovative approach to magazine layout and design, shaping the visual landscape of the 1960s and 70s.

    April Greiman

    April Greiman is a visionary designer known for her groundbreaking work in digital design and new media. A pioneer of the “New Wave” design movement, she embraced technology to create dynamic and interactive design experiences. Greiman’s innovative approach continues to inspire designers to push the boundaries of traditional graphic design.

    Deborah Sussman

    Deborah Sussman was a prolific designer whose colorful and exuberant designs helped define the visual identity of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics. Her bold use of color and geometric forms brought a sense of joy and vibrancy to the Olympic experience, leaving a lasting legacy in the world of environmental graphic design.

    Cipe Pineles

    Cipe Pineles was a groundbreaking female art director and designer, breaking barriers in the male-dominated world of editorial design. As the first female art director at Conde Nast, she played a pivotal role in shaping the visual identity of publications such as Vogue and Glamour, paving the way for future generations of female art directors.

    Zuzana Licko

    Zuzana Licko is a pioneering type designer and co-founder of the digital type foundry Emigre. Her experimental approach to typography challenged traditional design norms, leading to the creation of groundbreaking typefaces that revolutionized the industry. Licko’s innovative designs continue to influence contemporary typography and graphic design.

  • Islamic Design

    Islamic Design

    • Colour in Islamic Traditions

      Colour in Islamic Traditions
    • Islamic geometric design

      Islamic geometric design
    • Islamic calligraphy

      Islamic calligraphy

    Modern Islamic Art

    Iran

    Iranian art: Miniatures

    Qalamkar (traditional woodblock printing in Farsi)

    Shahname by Firdausi: miniatures of Ancient Iran

    Iranian Art: Modern

    Siamak Filizadeh

    Shahname in Modern Iranian Art

    Ghalamdar

    Street Artist Ghalamdar Street Artist article

    Mansur Qandriz

    Blind

    http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/qandriz-mansur

    Oman

    Oman traditional art inspiration

    The Arabic Letter Series

    Alia Alfarsi
    Dr Hanan Al Shihi

    Saudi Arabia

    Saudi Arabian art includes both the arts of Bedouin nomads and those of the sedentary peoples of regions such as the Hejaz, Tihamah, Asir and the Najd. There is also a vibrant modern art scene in major cities highlighting social issues, with a number of prominent women artists.

    Architecture

    Interior Mosque al Nabawi
    Interior Mosque al Nabawi

    The first mosque of Islam was the house of the Islamic prophet Mohammed in Medina. It is the prototype of all later sacred architecture of Islam. In it are most important the floor and carpet that are touched in prayer with the head.

    Bedouin art

    Saudi Rock art

    Tribal symbols referred to as “wusum” were carved by Bedouins during prehistoric times and are found as rock art in the hills and deserts of Arabia.

    Modern Art Movement

    The Art Movement in Saudi Arabia started in the mid 60’s by a group of School Art Teachers and lasted till mid 80’s. Prince Khalid Al Faisal, himself a poet and artist, inaugurated a cultural centre in Asir Province to promote young fresh talent. It was from this project that one of Saudi Arabia’s most prominent contemporary artists, Ahmed Mater, emerged. In 1972 Mohammed Said Farsi became the mayor of the coastal city of Jeddah, making the city one of the largest open-air art galleries in the world. Artists incorporated media outlets such as photography and video technology.

    Recently, there has been an increase in public galleries exhibiting modern art in Saudi Arabia. This supported by the influx of commercial galleries and a growing grass-roots movement of artists who have acquired international status.

    United Arab Emirates

    Archaeological motifs

    Motifs from perfume bottles found at Tel Abrak
    El Hafit tombs

    Modern Art

    Myneandyours
    National Day lips: Sisters Beauty Lounge is located in five prestigious locations throughout the country: Al Bateen Abu Dhabi, The Village Mall in Jumeirah, The Dubai Mall, Mirdif City Centre, and the Mall of the Emirates.

    article Hazem Mahdy automatic art

    Hazem Mahdy Atman 2 automatic art
    Hazem Mahdy Atman 3
  • African Design forthcoming

    African Design forthcoming

    A history of African art (not graphic design contrary to the title) is:

    http://guity-novin.blogspot.nl/2010/03/history-of-graphic-design-african-art.html

    Interesting websites with artists are:

    Feature image generated in Adobe Illustrator AI: African colourful geometric design – after several iterations

    There is no Wikipedia on African Graphic Design!!!

    A Google search for African typefaces tend to be rather kitsch zebras and unusable. Not the typefaces more commonly used in Africa – these are the common Adobe and Microsoft ones. But African designers have used these with colours in slightly different ways that I have yet to properly analyse.

    !!Many images from my own travels to be inserted here.

    Textile designs

    Zulu House Pattern
    Zulu House Pattern
    Julio Senna, Brazilian inspired by Africa
  • Japanese Calligraphy forthcoming

    Videos of Japanese calligraphers

  • Japanese Design forthcoming

    • Japanese Calligraphy forthcoming

      Overview of Japanese calligraphy forthcoming.


    • Zen Aesthetics and Art

      Zen Buddhism’s emphasis on simplicity and the importance of the natural world generated a distinctive aesthetic, which is expressed by the terms wabi and sabi. influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, particularly acceptance and contemplation of the imperfection, constant flux and impermanence of all things.


    • Japanese Colour Theories

      The traditional colours of Japan are a collection of colours traditionally used in Japanese art, literature, textiles such as kimono, and other Japanese arts and crafts. Standardisation of the Japanese colour wheel was conducted around 600AD and western recognition of it was as late as the mid-19th century, because Japan was largely secluded from the rest of the globe until that time.  …


    Cross between Zen minimalism, off-centre balance and Pokemon playfulness with very crowded collage.

    https://designschool.canva.com/blog/japanese-design/

    http://gurafiku.tumblr.com

    For more on my study of Japanese design, art and illustration see my post on my Illustration blog: Japanese Styles

  • Zen Aesthetics and Art

    Importance of Zen Aesthetics and Art for my design

    I have been interested in Zen meditation – its focus on awareness of the here and now and the possibilities of choice – since being a teenager. In relation to art this awareness of the moment develops an ability to observe, then capture in a few flowing strokes the essence of one’s perception of something. That ability is based on years of practice and development of a sense of composition – focusing on tensions and imbalance rather than symmetry. Zen painting explores the tension between the accidental and imperfect and that flash of control.

    Zen traces its origins to India, but it was formalized in China. Chan, as it is known in China, was transmitted to Japan and took root there in the thirteenth century. Chan was enthusiastically received in Japan, especially by the samurai class that wielded political power at this time, and it became the most prominent form of Buddhism between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. The immigrant Chinese prelates were educated men, who introduced not only religious practices but also Chinese literature, calligraphy, philosophy, and ink painting to their Japanese disciples, who often in turn traveled to China for further study.

    Principles of Zen Aesthetics: wabi sabi

    Zen means “meditation.” Zen teaches that enlightenment is achieved through the profound realization that one is already an enlightened being. This awakening can happen gradually or in a flash of insight (as emphasized by the Soto and Rinzai schools, respectively). But in either case, it is the result of one’s own efforts. Deities and scriptures can offer only limited assistance.

    Zen Buddhism’s emphasis on simplicity and the importance of the natural world generated a distinctive aesthetic, which is expressed by the terms wabi and sabi. influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, particularly acceptance and contemplation of the imperfection, constant flux and impermanence of all things. These two amorphous concepts are used to express a sense of rusticity, melancholy, loneliness, naturalness, and age, so that a misshapen, worn peasant’s jar is considered more beautiful than a pristine, carefully crafted dish. While the latter pleases the senses, the former stimulates the mind and emotions to contemplate the essence of reality. In today’s Japan, the meaning of wabi-sabi is often condensed to “wisdom in natural simplicity.” In art books, it is typically defined as “flawed beauty.”

    Many Japanese arts over the past thousand years have been  Such arts can exemplify a wabi-sabi aesthetic. A contemporary Japanese appraisal of this concept is found in the influential essay In Praise of Shadows by Jun’ichirō Tanizaki.

    In Search of Wabi Sabi with Marcel Theroux
    [wpdevart_youtube]Z2P8z7kYJW0[/wpdevart_youtube]

    Examples include:
    Honkyoku (traditional shakuhachi music of wandering Zen monks)
    Ikebana (flower arrangement)
    Japanese gardens, Zen gardens and bonsai (tray gardens)
    Japanese poetry
    Japanese pottery, Hagi ware, Raku ware
    Japanese tea ceremony

    Sumi-e

    Sumi-e or Japanese ink wash painting uses tonality and shading achieved by varying the ink density, both by differential grinding of the ink stick in water and by varying the ink load and pressure within a single brushstroke. Ink wash painting artists spend years practicing basic brush strokes to refine their brush movement and ink flow. In the hand of a master, a single stroke can produce astonishing variations in tonality, from deep black to silvery gray. Thus, in its original context, shading means more than just dark-light arrangement: It is the basis for the beautiful nuance in tonality found in East Asian ink wash painting and brush-and-ink calligraphy.In his classic book Composition, American artist and educator Arthur Wesley Dow (1857–1922) wrote this about ink wash painting: “The painter …put upon the paper the fewest possible lines and tones; just enough to cause form, texture and effect to be felt. Every brush-touch must be full-charged with meaning, and useless detail eliminated. Put together all the good points in such a method, and you have the qualities of the highest art”.

    See Wikipedia article. See articles from British Museum collection.

    A key practise is ensō ( , “circle”?) – a circle that is hand-drawn in one or two uninhibited brushstrokes to express a moment when the mind is free to let the body create. The ensō symbolizes absolute enlightenment, strength, elegance, the universe, and mu (the void). Drawing ensō is a disciplined practice of Japanese ink painting—sumi-e (墨絵 “ink painting”?). The tools and mechanics of drawing the ensō are the same as those used in traditional Japanese calligraphy: One uses a brush (筆 fudé?) to apply ink to washi (a thin Japanese paper). Usually a person draws the ensō in one fluid, expressive stroke. When drawn according to the sōsho (草書?) style of Japanese calligraphy, the brushstroke is especially swift. Once the ensō is drawn, one does not change it. It evidences the character of its creator and the context of its creation in a brief, contiguous period of time. Drawing ensō is a spiritual practice that one might perform as often as once per day.

    This spiritual practice of drawing ensō or writing Japanese calligraphy for self-realization is called hitsuzendō (筆禅道 “way of the brush”?). Ensō exemplifies the various dimensions of the Japanese wabi-sabi perspective and aesthetic: Fukinsei (asymmetry, irregularity), kanso (simplicity), koko (basic; weathered), shizen (without pretense; natural), yugen (subtly profound grace), datsuzoku (freedom), and seijaku (tranquility).

    Today, ink monochrome painting is the art form most closely associated with Zen Buddhism. In general, the first Japanese artists to work in this medium were Zen monks who painted in a quick and evocative manner to express their religious views and personal convictions. Their preferred subjects were Zen patriarchs, teachers, and enlightened individuals. In time, however, artists moved on to secular themes such as bamboo, flowering plums, orchids, and birds, which in China were endowed with scholarly symbolism. The range of subject matter eventually broadened to include literary figures and landscapes, and the painting styles often became more important than personal expression.
    It has also inspired many modern Japanese Abstract artists like Toko Shinoda and Western abstract artists like John Cage.

    You Tube videos on history of Chinese and Japanese ink painting
    [wpdevart_youtube]c5S-qgtXDCg[/wpdevart_youtube]
    [wpdevart_youtube]z0ljeeZJcRA[/wpdevart_youtube]

    Series of interesting videos on a contemporary Western Zen ink painter: Nikolai Jelneronov
    [wpdevart_youtube]NdQ_VqxAk-8[/wpdevart_youtube]

    Other Sources
    Met Museum
    Zen Buddhism and Art  Lieberman
    Zen Painting Google images


  • Japanese Colour Theories

    The traditional colours of Japan are a collection of colours traditionally used in Japanese art, literature, textiles such as kimono, and other Japanese arts and crafts.

    Standardisation of the Japanese colour wheel was conducted around 600AD and western recognition of it was as late as the mid-19th century, because Japan was largely secluded from the rest of the globe until that time.  

    Japanese Colour Wheel

    Consisting of the primary colours: Red, Yellow and Blue, as well as the neutrals, both Black and White, the Japanese colour wheel spins with reference to the natural elements and is used as a tool to interpret the Japanese theory itself.

    The earliest written history of Japan, which was a mix of fact and mythology, mentions the four oldest colour terms in the Japanese language: aka あか or red, kuro くろ or black, shiro しろ or white, and ao あお or blue. However, it has been proposed that these terms originally referred to the contrasting optical sensations of light and dark, clear and vague.

    With time, these ancient colour terms evolved to have the red, black, white and blue meanings in use today (as well as acquiring other symbolic meanings, which we’ll get to later). However, traces of the original four colours persist in modern Japanese. Most proverbs and surnames that mention colour, for example, often involve these four colours. Additionally, only these four colours can be prefixed with the “pure” and “genuine” ma , to give us makka 真っ赤まっか or bright red, makkuro 真っ黒まっくろ or pitch black, masshiro 真っ白まっしろ or pure white, massao 真っ青まっさお or deep blue.

    Similarly, the original ambiguity of ao appears to have stood the test of time. A vague, overlapping, blue-green colour band, termed “grue” in anthropological lingo, may be used to describe the bluish-green (or greenish-blue?) of ao – which is notorious for causing the Western confusion between aoshingou 青信号あおしんごう and “green traffic light.” Or aonegi 青ネギあおねぎ and “green spring onion.”

    The Japanese Cap and Rank System

    The traditional colours of Japan trace their historical origins to the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System which was established in 603 by Prince Shōtoku – the pioneer of japanese unification – and based on the five Chinese elements.

    In this system, rank and social hierarchy were displayed and determined by certain colors. Colors known as kinjiki (禁色, “forbidden colors“) were strictly reserved for the robes of the highest ranking government officials; for example, the color ōtan (orange) was used as the color for the robes of kuge and use by any other lower rank was prohibited.

    The original Japanese system consisted of 12 levels, symbolised by 2 shades of 6 colours. Dark and light shades of, purple, blue, red, yellow, white, and black were used to show virtue and demonstrate an official position. Purple being ranked 1, while black is ranked 12.

    Colors known as yurushiiro (許し色, “permissible colors”) were permitted for use by the common people.

    Many of the names of these colours originate from Chinese culture, where the hierarchical colour system was historically even more complex. Due to the long history of use of this color system, some variations in color and names exist.

    Other pigments

    The names of traditional colours are often related to native plants and animals, especially those used to make pigments and dyes. Certain colours and dyeing techniques have been used since the Asuka period, while others had been developed as late as the Meiji period when synthetic dyes became common.

    An example of this would be the Japanese color name, akaneiro 茜色あかねいろ, which was produced by creating a dye from the root of a plant called akane grass. Another perhaps more familiar example is azukiiro 小豆色あずきいろ, or the color of azuki beans (aka the most delicious thing ever, often the filling of daifuku mochi).

    Colours were also named after animals, the most popular choice seems to be the mouse, or nezumi, which is used to express grey tones. For example budou nezumi ぶどうネズミ, or grape mouse (purple grey), fuji nezumi 藤ネズミふじねずみ, or Fuji mouse (light purple grey), yanagi nezumi 柳鼠やなぎねずみ, or willow mouse (light green grey), and cha nezumi 茶鼠ちゃねずみ, or tea mouse (light brown grey).

    Japanese Colour Meanings

    Although there are these initial meanings attributed, there are a number of different interpretations of each colour in Japan. Semantics vary from island to island and some meanings overlap.

    Japanese Primary Colours

    • Earth (Yellow)
    • Wood (Blue)
    • Fire (Red)
    • Water (Black)
    • Metal (White)
    Earth (Yellow)

    Yellow represents the element of Earth and the directional Centre, but also encompasses links with the Sun and Summertime, along with the warmth of mid-summer, and concepts like the virtue of Fidelity. It also connotes of courage.

    But there are also a number of similarities between both eastern (courage) and western (cowardice) meanings. Saying that someone has a yellow beak is like calling them a rookie, and a yellow voice is associated with the high-pitched tones of shrieking children and angry women.   

    Wood (Blue)

    Blue has strictly secular connotations. One theory is that because the Japanese never worshiped an all-powerful god dwelling in heaven above, blue never became associated with lofty, religious sentiments. As well as emblematising the element of Wood, the directional East, Spring time, and Benevolence, the colour Blue encapsulates Femininity, Purity, Passivity and Calmness.

    Blue was a popular choice for:

    • ceramics, namely sometsuke 染付けそめつけ porcelain
    • fine art, namely the aizuri-e 藍摺り絵あいずりえ woodblock prints.
    • indigo dyeing industry that flourished in Shikoku during the Edo period. Kimonos are predominantly crafted in or dyed with this colour, due to the fact that Blue also reflects Japanese fashion. Young Japanese women traditionally wear blue to symbolise their innocence. Japanese business suits are often made in various shades of blue and students frequently wear blue “recruitment suits”, particularly for job interviews.
    Red

    Red came to be associated with authority and wealth, as attested to by red-sheathed samurai swords and ornamental combs. It also has ties to religion, as demonstrated by the red torii of Shinto shrines, whose shrine maidens are traditionally clad in red hakama はかま.

    Black

    Black exudes dignity and formality, and is used for the robes of Buddhist monks, as well as for montsuki 紋付もんつき, the kimono that bears the family crest.

    An ancient Japanese tradition known as ‘o-haguro’, which is the practice of dying one’s teeth black, considered beautiful at one point in Japanese history.

    Metal (White)

    Symbolic of Metal, White is a symbol of Purity and Innocence. White is godly and sacred places are strung with shimenawa 注連縄しめなわ  festooned with white shide 紙垂しで, or strewn with white pebbles or sand.

    It additionally connotes the West, the seasonal Fall, and the virtue of Justice. Aside from the black cap, Shinto priests are adorned completely in the purity of White.

    Intrinsically linked with the spirit in Japanese culture, the neutral noncolor that is White was traditionally used to represent mourning and grief.

    Secondary Colours

    Many other colours now have significant links with specific concepts.

    Green

    The word for both Blue and Green (ao – 青) was used to describe both colours and the word for Green is a much more recent linguistic emergence.   

    Nevertheless green is an incredibly popular and symbolic colour.

    • Existing in numerous shades, it is emblematic of Matcha green tea – Japan’s favourite hot beverage.
    • it represents Eternity, Life, Vegetation, Vitality, and a plethora of other meanings.
    Purple

    Royalty is linked with this colour across the globe; majestic and spiritually linked with divine rule. Purple is worn by the rich and upper-classes, to symbolise both Wealth and Prestige.

    Pink

    Pink holds great significance in Japanese culture: in fashion, in painting, in art, and in design, among other areas. As the dominant colour of springtime Japanese landscapes, thanks to the fields of blossoms, Pink represents Happiness, Youth, and new beginnings.   

    Resources

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_colors_of_Japan

    https://www.tofugu.com/japan/color-in-japan/

  • Chinese Colour Theories

    Chinese culture attaches certain values to colours, like which colours are considered auspicious (吉利) or inauspicious (不利). The Chinese word for “colour” is yánsè (顏色). In Classical Chinese, the character  (色) more accurately meant “colour in the face”, or “emotion”. It was generally used alone and often implied sexual desire or desirability. During the Tang Dynasty, the word yánsè came to mean ‘all colour’. A Chinese idiom with the meaning “many colours” or “multi-coloured”, Wǔyánliùsè (五顏六色), can also mean ‘colours’ in general.

    In Chinese mythology, the goddess, Nüwa, is said to have mended the Heavens after a disaster destroyed the original pillars that held up the skies, using five coloured-stones in these five auspicious colours to patch-up the crumbling heavens, accounting for the many colours that the skies can take-on.

    Theory of the Five Elements (Wuxing 五行)

    In traditional Chinese art and culture, black, red, qing (青) (a conflation of the idea of green and blue), white and yellow are viewed as standard colours. These colors correspond to the five elements (五行) of water, fire, wood, metal and earth, taught in traditional Chinese physics. Throughout the Shang, Tang, Zhou and Qin dynasties, China’s emperors used the Theory of the Five Elements to select colors. Other colors were considered by Confucius as ‘inferior’.

    ElementWoodFireEarthMetalWater
    ColorBlue / Azure / GreenRedYellowWhiteBlack
    Directioneastsouthcenterwestnorth
    PlanetJupiterMarsSaturnVenusMercury
    Heavenly creatureAzure Dragon
    青龍
    Vermilion Bird
    朱雀
    Yellow Dragon
    黃龍
    White Tiger
    白虎
    Black Tortoise
    玄武
    Heavenly Stems
    Wufang ShangdiCāngdìChidiHuangdiBaidiHeidi
    PhaseNew YangFull YangYin and Yang balanceNew YinFull Yin
    EnergyGenerativeExpansiveStabilizingContractingConserving
    SeasonSpringSummerChange of seasons
    (Every third month)
    AutumnWinter
    ClimateWindyHotDampDryCold
    DevelopmentSproutingBloomingRipeningWitheringDormant
    Livestockdogsheep/goatcattlechickenpig
    FruitChinese plumapricotjujubepeachChinese chestnut
    Grainwheatlegumericehemppearl millet
    Yellow

    Portrait of the Hongwu Emperor in a silk yellow dragon robe featuring embroidered the Yellow Dragon

    Yellow of a golden hue is considered the most beautiful and prestigious color.[2] The Chinese conception of yellow (huáng) is inclusive of many shades considered tan or brown in English and the primary association is with the earth rather than the sun. The Chinese saying Yellow generates Yin and Yang implies that yellow is the center of everything. Associated with but ranked above brown, yellow signifies neutrality and good luck. Yellow is sometimes paired with red in place of gold.

    The Yellow River is the cradle of Chinese civilisation. Yellow was the emperor’s color in Imperial China and is held as the symbolic color of the five legendary emperors of ancient China, such as the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Dragon is the zoomorphic incarnation of the Yellow Emperor of the centre of the universe in Chinese religion and mythology. The Flag of the Qing dynasty featured golden yellow as the background. The Plain Yellow Banner and the Bordered Yellow Banner were two of the upper three banners of Later Jin and Qing dynasty.

    Yellow often decorates royal palaces, altars and temples, and the color was used in the dragon robes and attire of the emperors.[2] It was a rare honour to receive the imperial yellow jacket.

    Yellow also represents freedom from worldly cares and is thus esteemed in Buddhism. Monks’ garments are yellow, as are elements of Buddhist temples. Yellow is also used as a mourning color for Chinese Buddhists.

    Yellow is also symbolic of heroism, as opposed to the Western association of the color with cowardice.[3]

    Black

    Black (黑, hēi), corresponding to water, is generally understood as a neutral color.

    The I Ching or Book of Changes regards black as Heaven’s color. The saying “heaven and earth are black” was rooted in the observation that the northern sky was black for a long time. Ancient Chinese people believed Tiandi or the Heavenly Emperor resided in the North Star. The Taiji symbol uses black and white or red to represent the unity of yin and yang. Ancient Chinese people regarded black as the king of colours and honoured black more consistently than any other colour (??). Laozi said know the white, keep the blackand Taoists believe black is the colour of the Tao.??

    Black is also used in many negative contexts in idioms and common names. “Black help” (黑幫, hēibāng) is the usual name for Chinese organized crime and the Thick Black Theory of the late Qing intellectual Li Zongwu (, 1879–1943) is an exhortation to Machiavellianism.

    In modern China, black is used in clothing, especially in professional contexts. Black has less association with mourning than white in traditional Chinese culture but formal black jackets and slacks have become associated with international professionalism.

    White

    White (白, bái) corresponds with metal among the Five Elements and represents gold (?) and symbolises brightness, purity, and fulfilment. Light-coloured skin is highly valued by many Chinese, especially in consideration of women as potential brides.

    White is also the traditional colour of mourning, although white wedding gowns have become more popular since the Opening Up Policy.

    Red

    See also: Vermilion § Chinese red

    Red (t s hóng), vermilion (dān), and crimson (chì) are associated with masculine yang energy and fire, good fortune and joy. Red is the traditional color used during Chinese New Year and other celebrations, including weddings and wedding gowns. Chinese reds are traditionally inclusive of shades English might consider orange or warm brown.

    A hongbao—a red envelope stuffed with money, now frequently red 100 RMB notes—is the usual gift in Chinese communities for Chinese New Year, birthdays, marriages, bribes, and other special occasions. The red color of the packet symbolizes good luck. Red is strictly forbidden at funerals as it is traditionally symbolic of happiness. The names of the dead were previously written in red, so it is generally somewhat offensive to use red ink for Chinese names in contexts other than official seals.

    In the People’s Republic of China, red remains a very popular color and is affiliated with and used by the Communist Party and the government.

    Blue / Green

    Main article: Qing (color)

    Old Chinese did not make a blue-green distinction, having a single “verdant” color (青, qīng) that covered both. The clear blue sky and fresh green vegetables were considered shades of a single color which could even include black as its darkest hue in some contexts. Modern Standard Mandarin does make the blue-green distinction using  (t s 绿, “leafy”) for green and lán (t s , “indigo“) for blue.

    Qīng was associated with health, prosperity, and harmony. It was used for the roof tiles and ornate interior of the Temple of Heaven and in other structures to represent heaven. It is also the colour of most jade as well as the greenware pottery that was developed to imitate it.

    Separately, green hats are associated with infidelity and used as an idiom for a cuckold. This has caused uneasiness for Chinese Catholic bishops, who, in ecclesiastical heraldry, would normally have a green hat above their arms. Chinese bishops have compromised by using a violet hat for their coat of arms.

    Intermediary colours

    The five intermediary colors (五間色 wǔjiànsè) are formed as combinations of the five elemental colors. These are:[6]

    • 綠  “green”: The intermediary colour of the east, combination of central yellow and eastern blue
    • 碧  “emerald-blue”: The intermediary colour of the west, combination of eastern blue and western white
    • 紅 hóng “light-red”: The intermediary colour of the south, combination of western white and southern red
    • 紫  “violet”: The intermediary colour of the north, combination of southern red and northern black
    • 硫 liú “horse-brown”: The intermediary colour of the center, combination of northern black and central yellow

    Resources

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_in_Chinese_culture

    https://ltl-taiwan.com/chinese-colors/#chapter-1

  • Western Colour Theories

    Western colour theory was originally formulated in terms of three “primary” or “primitive” colours—red, yellow and blue (RYB)—because these colours were believed capable of mixing all other colours.

    Goethe’s colour wheel from his 1810 Theory of Colours

    18th and 19th Centuries

    The RYB primary colors became the foundation of 18th-century theories of color vision,[citation needed] as the fundamental sensory qualities that are blended in the perception of all physical colors, and conversely, in the physical mixture of pigments or dyes. These theories were enhanced by 18th-century investigations of a variety of purely psychological color effects, in particular the contrast between “complementary” or opposing hues that are produced by color afterimages and in the contrasting shadows in colored light. These ideas and many personal color observations were summarized in two founding documents in color theory: the Theory of Colours (1810) by the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist Michel Eugène ChevreulCharles Hayter published A New Practical Treatise on the Three Primitive Colours Assumed as a Perfect System of Rudimentary Information (London 1826), in which he described how all colors could be obtained from just three.

    Page from 1826 A New Practical Treatise on the Three Primitive Colours Assumed as a Perfect System of Rudimentary Information by Charles Hayter

    Subsequently, German and English scientists established in the late 19th century that color perception is best described in terms of a different set of primary colors—red, green and blue-violet (RGB)—modeled through the additive mixture of three monochromatic lights. Subsequent research anchored these primary colors in the differing responses to light by three types of color receptors or cones in the retina (trichromacy).

    For much of the 19th century artistic color theory either lagged behind scientific understanding or was augmented by science books written for the lay public, in particular Modern Chromatics (1879) by the American physicist Ogden Rood, and early color atlases developed by Albert Munsell (Munsell Book of Color, 1915, see Munsell color system) and Wilhelm Ostwald (Color Atlas, 1919).

    20th Century

    On this basis the quantitative description of the color mixture or colorimetry developed in the early 20th century, along with a series of increasingly sophisticated models of color space and color perception, such as the opponent process theory.

    Across the same period, industrial chemistry radically expanded the color range of lightfast synthetic pigments, allowing for substantially improved saturation in color mixtures of dyes, paints, and inks. It also created the dyes and chemical processes necessary for color photography. As a result, three-color printing became aesthetically and economically feasible in mass printed media, and the artists’ color theory was adapted to primary colors most effective in inks or photographic dyes: cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY). (In printing, dark colors are supplemented by black ink, known as the CMYK system; in both printing and photography, white is provided by the color of the paper.) These CMY primary colors were reconciled with the RGB primaries, and subtractive color mixing with additive color mixing, by defining the CMY primaries as substances that absorbed only one of the retinal primary colors: cyan absorbs only red (−R+G+B), magenta only green (+R−G+B), and yellow only blue-violet (+R+G−B). It is important to add that the CMYK, or process, color printing is meant as an economical way of producing a wide range of colors for printing, but is deficient in reproducing certain colors, notably orange and slightly deficient in reproducing purples. A wider range of colors can be obtained with the addition of other colors to the printing process, such as in Pantone‘s Hexachrome printing ink system (six colors), among others.

    Munsell‘s 1905 color system represents colors using three color-making attributes, value (lightness), chroma, and hue.

    Major advances were made in the early 20th century by artists teaching or associated with the German Bauhaus, in particular Wassily KandinskyJohannes IttenFaber Birren and Josef Albers, whose writings mix speculation with an empirical or demonstration-based study of color design principles.

    Itten and Albers studied the interaction between hues and the ways in which our perception of hues and tones is altered radically by the other colours surrounding them.

    Impressionism
    Pointillim
    Fauvism
    Expressionism

    Alex Katz
    Andy Warhol
    Patrick Caulfield